EU’s Specified and Massive Subsidies for “New Trio” Industry Under Green Transition
EU’s Specified and Massive Subsidies for “New Trio” Industry Under Green Transition
Author | Shi Xiaoli, Guo Wei, China University of Political Science and LawOn October 29, 2024, the European Commission issued a notice imposing countervailing duties on electric vehicles imported from China starting from October 30. In fact, Official European Union (EU) statistics[1] reveal that in recent years, the EU and its member states have heavily subsidized the “new trio” industries—lithium batteries, photovoltaic products, and electric vehicles—over recent years through grants, tax breaks, low-interest loans, loan guarantees, and price subsidies. These measures, justified by green transition and regional development goals, aim to enhance global competitiveness and secure a lead in emerging industries. Although the EU has established rules to limit state aid from member countries, it has also introduced numerous exemption clauses that allow for specified and distortionary subsidies by member states. Additionally, the EU has set up several supportive funds to provide direct grants under its own name. Through its dual-channel subsidy mechanism (EU funds and member state aid), the EU provides either full or high-cost coverage for many “new trio” projects, resulting in substantial funding support. For example, in 2022, the EU provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry through various funds.[2]
I. The EU offers extensive subsidies to the “new trio” industries via multiple funds
Under the banner of promoting green transition and supporting the development of disadvantaged regions, the EU has established at least 11 support funds to subsidize the “new trio” industries. These funds include the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, Just Transition Fund (JTF), European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), Cohesion Fund, InvestEU Fund, European Social Fund (ESF), Connecting Europe Facility (CEF), European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), and the Modernisation Fund (MF).
A. EU funds provide full or majority subsidies for multiple “new trio” projects
Among the various EU funds, five major funds—the RRF, Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, ERDF, and CEF—often provide full subsidies or substantial grants, covering up to half or more of the project costs for numerous “new trio” initiatives through grants and loans.The RRF, Horizon Europe and Innovation Fund have provided the largest subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The RRF primarily provides subsidies for areas such as green and digital transitions through grants and preferential loans. As of April 2024, the RRF has provided EUR 87.9 billion to support sustainable transportation projects, including zero- or low-emission vehicles.[3] The Horizon Europe aims at promoting research and innovation to support the green transition. The fund has a total budget of EUR 93.5 billion for the 2021-2027 period, with subsidies amounting to EUR 22.735 million already provided from 2021 to 2022.[4] The Innovation Fund primarily provides subsidies to low-carbon technology innovation projects, with funding mainly sourced from EU carbon emissions trading revenue. From 2021 to 2030, this fund will grant at least EUR 40 billion.[5]The ERDF and the CEF also provide full or large grant subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The ERDF primarily finances structural adjustments and transformations in disadvantaged regions to reduce the development gap with other EU areas. From 2021 to 2027, it focuses on promoting a green and low-emission transition,[6] allocating EUR 104.3 billion to subsidize projects such as energy transition and sustainable urban mobility.[7] The CEF mainly supports the development of high-performance, sustainable, and interconnected trans-European networks across transport, energy, and digital service sectors.[8] From 2021 to 2022, the fund awarded EUR 1.66 billion in grants to 18 energy projects, including 5 electricity projects, 4 carbon dioxide projects, 3 natural gas projects, 1 smart grid project, and 5 cross-border renewable energy projects.[9]
B. The EU funds provide most subsidies to the battery industryAs an upstream sector of electric vehicles, the battery industry has received substantial direct grants from EU funds. Within the “new trio” industries, battery projects receive the largest share of subsidies from EU funds and state aid, with many fully subsidized or receiving over half of their budget. Examples include the Horizon Europe granting approximately EUR 873 million to 307 battery R&D projects from 2014 to 2020, the Innovation Fund awarding EUR 161 million to 8 battery projects from 2021 to 2022, and the ERDF allocating EUR 319 million to 459 battery-related projects across 14 member states.[10]In the field of battery R&D, the Horizon Europe has provided substantial funding, with many projects receiving full subsidies. In May 2015, it allocated EUR 6.89 million to a project developing a new generation of lithium-ion batteries, collaboratively undertaken by France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 7.25 million).[11] In January 2020, it provided a full subsidy of EUR 7.81 million to an all-solid-state battery R&D project involving France, Italy, Poland, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, Germany, and Ukraine.[12] In February 2020, it allocated EUR 10.25 million to electric vehicle lithium battery R&D projects jointly conducted by France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Germany, and the UK.[13] In May 2020, it granted EUR 7.89 million to a sulfide-based all-solid-state lithium battery R&D project for electric vehicles, with participation from France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Turkey.[14] In January 2023, it allocated a full subsidy of EUR 7.99 million to a next-generation lithium battery R&D project, collaboratively carried out by France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, Portugal, Slovenia, Germany, and Norway.[15]In the field of battery manufacturing, the ERDF has provided substantial funding. In September 2018, the fund allocated EUR 800,000 to The Batteries for the Future project at the Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry (CEEC) in Jena, Germany, to support the production of organic batteries (with a project budget of EUR 1.01 million).[16] In October 2019, it provided EUR 7.78 million to Germany’s “Energy Transition and Cleaner Air in Hamburg: HHLA’s container transporters run on smart batteries instead of diesel” project (with a project budget of EUR 61.5 million), aimed at converting container transport vehicles into battery-powered trucks.[17]In the field of battery recycling, the Innovation Fund has provided substantial full subsidies. In April 2022, the fund financed EUR 67.55 million to the French company ERAMET for its electric vehicle lithium battery recycling project.[18]
C. EU funds provide the largest subsidies for individual projects in the photovoltaic industry
In the EU, member states with favorable natural conditions are actively developing the photovoltaic industry. Although the number of photovoltaic subsidies is relatively low, the required funding is substantial. The EU funds provide generous subsidies that often cover all or more than half of the programs’ budget, mainly through direct grants, along with preferential loans, price subsidies, and other support mechanisms. For instance, in 2022, EU funds provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry, exceeding the subsidies allocated to wind power and biomass energy generation.[19]The R&D of photovoltaic technology has received substantial full subsidies, large grants, and preferential loans from the Innovation Fund and Horizon Europe. In January 2021, the Innovation Fund granted EUR 117 million to Enel in Italy to develop a pilot production line for high-performance photovoltaic modules.[20] In April 2018, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 9.4 million to a public photovoltaic R&D project jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 11.14 million).[21] In October 2022, it allocated EUR 2.93 million in full funding to a project on ultrathin-film photovoltaic technology and flexible solar cells, cooperatively developed by the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Greece, and Germany.[22] In December 2022, it provided a full grant of EUR 5.11 million to a perovskite photovoltaics R&D project participated by France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany.[23]The installation of photovoltaic facility is also heavily subsidized by EU funds. For example, the RRF fully funded several photovoltaic installation projects in Italy, including a full subsidy of EUR 1.5 billion granted in July 2022 for an agrivoltaic installation project[24] and an EUR 89.5 million grant in July 2023 to support the expansion of 3Sun’s photovoltaic cell production facilities.[25]
D. EU funds extend support for EV industry from R&D and production to consumer subsidies
The EU has allocated at least EUR 22 billion to support the electric vehicle sector, mainly through grants. Subsidies from the RRF, Horizon Europe, ERDF and CEF effectively cover all stages of the electric vehicle sector, including R&D, manufacturing, charging infrastructure installation, and consumer support.The RRF has allocated substantial subsidies to several electric vehicle projects in Spain. In December 2021, it provided EUR 1.55 billion to Spain’s “Measures of encouragement of transformative project the value chain of VEC” (PERTE VEC) program, with a total budget of EUR 3 billion, to support R&D across the entire value chain.[26] In May and July 2023, additional grants of EUR 837 million[27] and EUR 528.7 million were given to the same project. In the consumer sector, France began offering an “ecological bonus” of 27% of the VAT-inclusive price of electric vehicles from 2023, with EUR 985 million allocated from the RRF.[28] In 2021, Spain’s “Incentives Program for Efficient and Sustainable Mobility III” (MOVES III; in Spanish, Programa de Incentivos a la Movilidad Eficiente y Sostenible) program received EUR 150 million from the RRF to support electric vehicle purchases and charging infrastructure installation.[29] In 2021, the RRF also allocated EUR 5.5 billion to Germany for private electric vehicle, bus, and train consumption, and charging infrastructure.[30] In 2023, it provided EUR 2.764 billion to support the purchase of zero-emission vehicles by individuals in Germany.[31]The Horizon Europe program provided a full subsidy of EUR 8 million in June 2015 for an electric vehicle energy system optimization project undertaken by several EU member states, including France, Italy, the Czech Republic, Germany, and the UK.[32] In October 2016, 10 EU member states, including Italy, Poland, and the Netherlands, partnered with Belarus, Turkey, Israel, the European Commission, and the European Green Vehicles Initiative Association (EGVIA) to establish the ERA-NET fund, aimed at promoting the development of the European electric vehicle industry. The Horizon Europe provided EUR 6.26 million for this initiative.[33] In 2019, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 5.4 million to the “1000km PLUS” program, a joint initiative by France, Austria, the Czech Republic, and Germany, focused on developing electric vehicle powertrains and key components manufacturing technologies.[34] In July 2022, the fund fully supported the power electronics conversion innovation program, with a budget of EUR 5.99 million, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Turkey.[35] In January 2024, the fund provided a full subsidy of EUR 11.38 million to an electric vehicle full-process manufacturing technology improvement project, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, and 8 other EU member states, along with Norway and the UK.[36] In November 2022, the ERDF allocated EUR 21.38 million to a high-power electric vehicle charging infrastructure network project jointly deployed by Italy, Romania, and Spain.[37] In February 2019, it provided a EUR 15 million subsidy to Spain’s MOVES program,[38] and in 2020, it contributed partial funding to the MOVES II program, which had a budget of EUR 100 million,[39] to support electric vehicle consumption and the installation of charging infrastructure.[40]
II. EU Member States provide significant state aid for the “new trio” through State resources
A. Member States apply state aid exemption rules to significantly subsidize the “new trio” industries
Article 107(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) states that any aid which distorts or threatens to distort competition and affects trade between Member States is incompatible with the internal market and is thus prohibited.However, Article 107(2) and (3) provide various exceptions to this prohibition. When these conditions are met, state aid is considered compatible, or deemed compatible, with the internal market, allowing member states to offer such aid. Examples include aid for “Important Projects of Common European Interest” (IPCEI) and aid for specific economic activities. The IPCEIs refer to projects that significantly advance EU industry, economic growth, employment, green and digital transitions, and competitiveness. Each IPCEI must be jointly developed by at least 4 member states and notified to the European Commission for approval before implementation.Article 108 of the TFEU mandates that member states notify the European Commission of planned state aid, which may not be implemented until the Commission completes its review and grants approval. However, the Treaty authorizes the EU Council and the Commission to specify types of aid that do not require notification. To this end, the Commission issued the General Block Exemption Regulation (GBER) and the De Minimis Regulation. Under the GBER, member states may provide regional aid, SME aid, environmental aid, R&D and innovation aid, training aid, broadband infrastructure aid, local infrastructure aid, support for European territorial cooperation projects, and aid related to financial products backed by the InvestEU Fund without notifying the Commission. The De Minimis Regulation exempts from notification any aid of up to EUR 300,000 per enterprise over 3 fiscal years.Additionally, the Commission introduced the Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework to expand the scope of aid deemed “compatible with the internal market” under Article 107 of the TFEU. With Commission approval, member states may provide certain aid through grants, tax incentives, loan guarantees, concessional loans, advance payments, and more. This includes investment and operational aid for energy storage and renewable energy promotion, aid for electrification and industrial decarbonization, aid for reducing electricity consumption, and investment aid for strategic industries to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.B. Member States widely subsidize the battery sector benefiting a large number of battery-related enterprisesEU member states have allocated over EUR 6 billion in subsidies for two phases of battery R&D projects under the IPCEI. They have also provided a total of EUR 572 million to six regional aid projects through direct grants, tax incentives, and loan guarantees.[41]For example, In June 2019, 7 EU Member States, including France, Italy, and Poland, jointly notified the European Commission of the first battery IPCEI, providing EUR 3.2 billion in direct grants to 17 companies: Italy EUR 570 million, Poland EUR 240 million, France EUR 960 million, Belgium EUR 80 million, Finland EUR 30 million, Sweden EUR 50 million, and Germany EUR 1.25 billion.[42] In the second phase of the battery IPCEI approved by the European Commission in January 2021, France, Italy, and 10 other participating countries allocated a total of EUR 2.9 billion in state aid to 42 subsidized companies. Some of the state aid provided by Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, and Greece was supported by funding from the ERDF. The state aid from EU member states was primarily in the form of grants, with the following amounts allocated: Germany, EUR 1.5 billion; Italy, EUR 600 million; France, Croatia, and Slovakia, EUR 100 million each; Poland, EUR 20 million; Sweden and Austria, EUR 50 million each; Belgium and Greece, EUR 40 million each; Finland, EUR 10 million; and Spain, EUR 1 million. Additionally, Belgium provided state aid to relevant research institutions in the form of “repayable advances.”[43]France and Germany also provided substantial specified subsidies to the battery industry. In France, as of May 2023, the “France 2030” plan provided EUR 19 million in state aid for the “Priority Research Programmes and Equipments” (PEPR) project. The “BATMAT” plan allocated EUR 15 million in state aid for 80 mature battery projects, while the “Battery Innovation Solutions and Technologies” program (in French, Solutions et Technologies pour l’Innovation des Batteries) offered EUR 79 million in state aid for 20 projects. Additionally, the “Materials Recycling Innovation Solutions” (RRR; in French, Solutions innovantes pour l’amélioration de la recyclabilité, du recyclage et de la réincorporation des matériaux) program provided EUR 30 million in state aid and injected EUR 500 million into a critical metals investment fund.[44] In January 2024, the European Commission approved EUR 902 million in state aid from Germany to Northvolt to support the construction of a clean battery factory and large-scale battery production. This subsidy includes EUR700 million in direct grants and EUR 202 million in loan guarantees.[45]C. Member States’ subsidies for the photovoltaic industry have the longest duration and the largest individual amount among the “new trio” industriesIn the EU, countries like France and Italy offer up to 20 years of price subsidies for photovoltaic power plant construction and solar energy projects, with total subsidies reaching at least EUR 23.6 billion. In September 2017, the Commission approved France’s State aid for renewable electricity production, which includes two 20-year subsidies for photovoltaic power generation amounting to EUR 4.6 billion, provided through government procurement and electricity price subsidies.[46] In July 2021, the Commission further approved a EUR 30.5 billion State aid scheme for renewable electricity production in France, allocating over EUR 11.6 billion to the photovoltaic sector.[47] In August 2021, another EUR 5.7 billion in State aid was approved in France for small photovoltaic installations on buildings, allowing those with a peak power of up to 500 kilowatts to benefit from a 20 years feed-in tariff.[48] In November 2023, the Commission approved a EUR 1.7 billion Italian State aid scheme for agrivoltaic installations, with its subsidy recipients determined through a bidding process that will allocate EUR 1.1 billion in investment grants from the RRF and EUR 560 million in two-way contracts for difference (CfD) or feed-in tariffs for 20 years. The specific forms of the subsidies will depend on the installed capacity of the recipient’s project.[49]
Italy and other EU member states also offer tax incentives for installing photovoltaic systems. In May 2020, Italy introduced the “110% superbonus” tax deduction for energy efficiency and seismic renovation of residential buildings, offering a tax exemption amounting to 110% of the renovation costs. There are three available tax exemption methods: (i) an income tax credit; (ii) suppliers covering the entire cost and receiving a tax exemption; and (iii) transferring the tax exemption amount to offset loans from banks or insurance companies.[50] Under this policy, the installation of residential photovoltaic systems can receive a tax credit of up to EUR 48,000.[51] Starting in 2024, Italy’s super subsidy policy will lower the tax-exempt rate to 70%.[52] In the EU, investment projects aimed at producing photovoltaic cells and related components are also eligible for direct grants. For example, the European Commission approved state aid packages of EUR 1.2 billion for Poland,[53] EUR 1 billion for Portugal,[54] and EUR 520 million for Luxembourg[55] on September 17, September 27, and October 11, 2024, respectively. These funds support investments in strategic equipment production, including batteries, photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, heat pumps, electrolyzers, carbon capture, usage and storage equipment, and related essential components and critical raw materials to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.[56] Additionally, on October 3, 2024, the Commission again approved a EUR 1.2 billion Polish aid package to subsidize investments in energy storage facilities, further promoting the shift to a net-zero economy. [57]D. Member States generally use subsidies to stimulate consumption in the electric vehicle sector
By 2023, all 27 EU member states had implemented at least one electric vehicle consumption subsidy policy, primarily in the form of tax incentives and grants. Germany alone allocated EUR 10 billion in subsidies for electric vehicle adoption.[58]In terms of tax incentives, member states such as France, Spain, and Germany offer various tax benefits for electric vehicle consumption, including registration tax, personal income tax, and circulation tax. For example, France provides a 50% reduction on registration fees and a 100% exemption on license plate registration fees for fully electric and hybrid vehicles.[59] In June 2023, Spain introduced a 15% personal income tax reduction for the purchase of electric vehicles and charging equipment. The tax deduction applies up to EUR 20,000 for electric vehicles and EUR 4,000 for charging equipment.[60] Germany has extended its exemption from motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles multiple times between 2012 and 2023, including a 10-year circulation tax exemption introduced in 2016.[61]Grants are another important means of promoting electric vehicle consumption. In May 2020, France launched an EUR 8 billion “Automotive Industry Revitalization Plan” (in French, Plan de relance pour l’industrie automobile), which encompasses state aid for electric vehicle consumption, production, and the deployment of charging infrastructure.[62] In the area of electric vehicle consumption, the state aid takes the form of ecological subsidies for car buyers or trade-in bonuses for consumers purchasing electric or hybrid vehicles to replace diesel or gasoline cars.[63] At the local level, since 2019, 131 cities in the Paris metropolitan area have provided varying amounts of state aid to support the purchase of electric vehicles.[64] In May 2016, Germany introduced the “Government Programme for Electric Mobility” plan, providing EUR 1.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of fully electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles, and EUR 300 million for the expansion of charging infrastructure. The environmental bonus is equally funded by the federal government and the automotive industry, with half of the subsidies given to manufacturers to reduce the car price and the other half to consumers as grants.[65] Germany provided an additional EUR 2.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles between 2020 and 2021, and invested EUR 1.2 billion in electric buses.[66]Sufficient and convenient charging infrastructure is a crucial factor in promoting electric vehicle consumption. Therefore, EU member states such as France and Germany provide substantial direct grants and tax incentives for the installation of charging facilities. In 2016, France provided at least EUR 320 million in grants through the “Advenir” program to subsidize these installations.[67] France also implemented VAT incentives and tax credit policies. The VAT for home charging facilities is set at 5.5%, while the VAT for installing charging devices in buildings over two years old is 10%, and for buildings under two years old, it is 20%. Additionally, from 2021 to 2023, buyers of charging devices can benefit from a special tax credit of up to EUR 300 for purchasing and installing these facilities.[68] While in German, in July 2022, the German federal government established the Climate and Transformation Fund (KTF), using the national budget to support energy transition and climate protection from 2023 to 2026.[69] In October 2022, Germany’s Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport approved a charging infrastructure subsidy plan, fully supported by the fund, with a budget of EUR 630 million covering 68 specific measures. In June 2023, the ministry allocated EUR 900 million to improve the subsidy plan, with EUR 500 million dedicated to private charging stations and EUR 400 million to commercial ones.[70]
III. EU’s substantial subsidies for the “new trio” show significant impact but risk distorting global market
Under the banner of green transition, support for underdeveloped regions, and the development of specific industries, EU funds and Member States’ State aid provide dual financial backing for the implementation of subsidies. Various incentives, including grants, tax exemptions, price subsidies, and preferential loans, work together to advance the EU’s true objective: seizing development opportunities and asserting leadership in the global competition within the “new trio” sectors.A variety of subsidies has enabled rapid development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. The battery industry received at least EUR 1.7 billion in grants and loan guarantees from the EU budget between 2014 and 2020. Since 2019, EU member states have provided over EUR 6.57 billion in state aid through IPCEI and regional aid programs.[71] With dual subsidy support, the EU now hosts 10 gigafactories and 20 under-construction plants for battery production, meeting two-thirds of the EU’s market demand for batteries.[72] From 2022 to 2023, the EU’s share of global lithium battery exports grew from 28.2% to 30.3%.[73] In the photovoltaic sector, EU funds and state aid totaled at least EUR 8.6 billion and EUR 23.6 billion, respectively. These subsidies drove over 40% annual growth in photovoltaic installations from 2021 to 2023,[74] while EU solar panel exports rose 19% in value and 37% in quantity from 2022 to 2023.[75] In the electric vehicle sector, EU funds and state aid reached at least EUR 22 billion and EUR 10.8 billion, respectively. By 2023, the EU surpassed 630,000 public charging points, with an 84% increase in DC chargers.[76] EU electric vehicle exports also surged to EUR 22.3 billion in 2022, marking a 100% increase from 2021 and a 400% rise from 2019.[77] In conclusion, the EU “new trio” subsidies, which take various forms, are both specified and substantial. Numerous initiatives have benefited from EU funds or State aids, with subsidies accounting for over half of their total budgets. These subsidies have achieved initial success in promoting the development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. However, as these subsidies grow in scale and scope, along with the EU’s increasing export competitiveness, they are likely to distort the foreign and even the global markets.
[1]Primary data sources include official statistical reports from the European Commission, subsidy notifications submitted by the EU to the WTO, and publications by EU member state governments or public agencies.
[2]European Commission, REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL:2023 Report on Energy Subsidies in the EU, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52023DC0651.
[3]European Commission: Recovery and Resilience Facility Scoreboard - Sustainable Transport Thematic Analysis, April 2024; European Commission: Recovery and Resilience Facility Scoreboard - Clean Energy Thematic Analysis, December 2021.
[4]New and Full Notification Pursuant to Article XVI:1 of the GATT 1994 and Article 25 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, European Union, 25 July 2023.
[5]European Commission, What is the Innovation Fund. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/eu-funding-climate-action/innovation-fund/what-innovation-fund_en#other-forms-of-support.
[6]European Commission, Regulation (EU) 2021/1058 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 June 2021 on the European Regional Development Fund and on the Cohesion Fund.[7]New and Full Notification Pursuant to Article XVI:1 of the GATT 1994 and Article 25 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, European Union,25 July 2023,G/SCM/N/401/EU.
[8]European Parliament and of the Council of European Union, establishing the Connecting Europe Facility and repealing Regulations (EU) No 1316/2013 and (EU) No 283/2014.
[9]New and Full Notification Pursuant to Article XVI:1 of the GATT 1994 and Article 25 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, European Union, 25 July 2023,G/SCM/N/401/EU.
[10]he EU’s industrial policy on batteries:New strategic impetus needed,https://www.eca.europa.eu/ECAPublications/SR-2023-15/SR-2023-15_EN.pdf.
[11]EU Funding & Tenders Portal, Silicon and polyanionic chemistries and architectures of Li-ion cell for high energy battery, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/31045243/653373/H2020?order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title&keywords=Battery&isExactMatch=true&frameworkProgramme=31045243.
[12]EU Funding & Tenders Portal, All Solid-sTate Reliable BATtery for 2025, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/31045243/875029/H2020?order=DESC&pageNumber=2&pageSize=50&sortBy=title&keywords=Battery&isExactMatch=true&frameworkProgramme=31045243.
[13]European Commission, Lithium-ion battery with silicon anode, nickel-rich cathode and in-cell sensor for electric vehicles, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/31045243/875548/H2020?keywords=%20electric%20vehicles&isExactMatch=true&order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title; Lithium-ion battery with silicon anode, nickel-rich cathode and in-cell sensor for electric vehicles, European Commission, https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/875548/reporting.
[14]European Commission, Solid state sUlfide Based LI-MEtal batteries for EV applications, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/31045243/875028/H2020?keywords=%20electric%20vehicles&isExactMatch=true&order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title.
[15]EU Funding & Tenders Portal, Towards the next generation of high performance li-ion battery cells, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/43108390/101069910/HORIZON?keywords=%20battery&isExactMatch=true&order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title.
[16] European Commission, Developing sustainable, environment-friendly batteries in Jena, Germany, https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/projects/projects-database/developing-sustainable-environment-friendly-batteries-in-jena-germany_en.
[17] European Commission, Port of Hamburg uses green ‘smart batteries’ to support the German energy transition,https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/projects/projects-database/port-of-hamburg-uses-green-smart-batteries-to-support-the-german-energy-transition_en.
[18] European Commission, Recycling Li-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/43089234/101086003/INNOVFUND?keywords=%20electric%20vehicles&isExactMatch=true&order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title.
[19] European Commission, REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL:2023 Report on Energy Subsidies in the EU, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52023DC0651.
[20] Innovation Fund, TANGO: ITaliAN PV Giga factory, https://climate.ec.europa.eu/document/download/04f1ef88-9b30-4849-9118-647d0f04fefe_en?filename=if_pf_2022_tango_en.pdf.
[21] EU Funding & Tenders Portal, Global Optimization of integrated PhotoVoltaics system for low electricity cost, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/31045243/792059/H2020?order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title&keywords=%20photovoltaics&isExactMatch=true.
[22] EU Funding & Tenders Portal, Advanced Strategies for Development of Sustainable Semiconductors for Scalable Solar Cell Applications, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/43108390/101046297/HORIZON?order=DESC&pageNumber=2&pageSize=50&sortBy=title&keywords=%20photovoltaics&isExactMatch=true.
[23] EU Funding & Tenders Portal, Ultra-stable, highly efficient, low-cost perovskite photovoltaics with minimised environmental impact, https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/43108390/101084124/HORIZON?order=DESC&pageNumber=1&pageSize=50&sortBy=title&keywords=%20photovoltaics&isExactMatch=true.
[24] European Commission, Aide d'État / Italie SA.102460 (2022/N) RRF - Réalisation d’installations photovoltaïques sur des bâtiments agricoles, zootechniques et agroindustriels, à financer dans le cadre du PNRR, Mission 2, composante 1, investissement 2.2 « Parc agrosolaire »., https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202234/SA_102460_B0B5B582-0000-CE7D-B1CB-7E5998392C84_32_1.pdf;European Commission, State aid: Commission approves €1.2 billion Italian scheme under Recovery and Resilience Facility to support investments in photovoltaic panels in agricultural sector, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_4331.
[25] European Commission, State Aid SA.104269 (2022/N) – Italy RRF: LIP – Regional investment aid to 3Sun Srl, https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202426/SA_104269_111.pdf;European Commission, State aid: Commission approves €89.5 million Italian measure under Recovery and Resilience Facility to support 3Sun's solar panel plant expansion, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3964.
[26] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves €3 billion scheme under the Spanish Recovery and Resilience Plan to support research, development, innovation, environmental protection and energy efficiency in automotive value chain, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_21_6726/IP_21_6726_EN.pdf.
[27] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves €837 million Spanish scheme to support the production of batteries for electric and connected vehicles to foster the transition to a net-zero economy, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_2425.
[28] European Commission, Ecological bonuses – Support to demand for clean vehicles, https://commission.europa.eu/projects/ecological-bonuses-support-demand-clean-vehicles_en.
[29] IDEA, Programa MOVES III, https://www.idae.es/ayudas-y-financiacion/para-movilidad-y-vehiculos/programa-moves-iii.
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